Introduction

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Depending on the scope of the language, the content of the utterance, the situation and goals of communication, several functional and stylistic varieties, or styles, are distinguished, characterized by a certain system of selection and organization of language means in them.

Functional style is a historically established and socially conscious variety of the literary language (its subsystem), functioning in a certain area of ​​human activity and communication, created by the peculiarities of the use of language means in this area and their specific organization.

The classification of styles is based on extralinguistic factors: the scope of the language, the topics determined by it and the goals of communication. The spheres of application of the language correlate with the types of human activity corresponding to the forms of social consciousness (science, law, politics, art). Traditional and socially significant areas of activity are: scientific, business (administrative-legal), socio-political, artistic. Accordingly, they also distinguish styles of official speech (bookish): scientific, official business, journalistic, literary and artistic (artistic). They are opposed to the style of informal speech - colloquial and everyday.

The literary and artistic style of speech stands apart in this classification, since the question of the legitimacy of its selection as a separate language has not yet been resolved. functional style, because it has rather blurry borders and can use language tools all other styles. specificity this style is also the presence in it of various figurative means of expression to pass a special property- imagery.

1. Literary and artistic style

As we noted above, the issue of the language of fiction and its place in the system of functional styles is solved ambiguously: some researchers (V.V. Vinogradov, R.A. Budagov, A.I. Efimov, M.N. Kozhina, A. N. Vasilyeva, B.N. Golovin) include a special artistic style in the system of functional styles, others (L.Yu. Maksimov, K.A. Panfilov, M.M. Shansky, D.N. Shmelev, V.D. Bondaletov) consider that there is no reason for this. The following are given as arguments against singling out the style of fiction: 1) the language of fiction is not included in the concept of literary language; 2) it is multi-styled, not closed, does not have specific signs that would be inherent in the language of fiction as a whole; 3) the language of fiction has a special, aesthetic function, which is expressed in a very specific use of linguistic means.

It seems to us that the opinion of M.N. Kozhina that "removal artistic speech outside of functional styles impoverishes our understanding of the functions of the language. If we deduce artistic speech from among the functional styles, but consider that the literary language exists in a variety of functions, and this cannot be denied, then it turns out that the aesthetic function is not one of the functions of the language. The use of language in the aesthetic sphere is one of the highest achievements of the literary language, and because of this, neither the literary language ceases to be such, getting into a work of art, nor the language of fiction ceases to be a manifestation of the literary language.

The main goal of literary artistic style – mastering the world according to the laws of beauty, satisfying the aesthetic needs of both the author of a work of art and the reader, the aesthetic impact on the reader with the help of artistic images.

It is used in literary works of various kinds and genres: stories, novellas, novels, poems, poems, tragedies, comedies, etc.

The language of fiction, despite the stylistic heterogeneity, despite the fact that the author's individuality is clearly manifested in it, still differs in a number of specific features that make it possible to distinguish artistic speech from any other style.

The features of the language of fiction as a whole are determined by several factors. It is characterized by broad metaphor, figurativeness of language units of almost all levels, the use of synonyms of all types, ambiguity, different stylistic layers of vocabulary. In the artistic style (compared to other functional styles) there are laws of perception of the word. The meaning of a word is largely determined by the author's goal setting, genre and compositional features of the work of art, of which this word is an element: firstly, in the context of a given literary work, it can acquire artistic ambiguity that is not recorded in dictionaries, and secondly, it retains its connection with the ideological and aesthetic system of this work and is assessed by us as beautiful or ugly, sublime or base, tragic or comic:

The use of language means in fiction ultimately subordinated to the author's intention, the content of the work, the creation of the image and the impact through it on the addressee. Writers in their works proceed primarily from the fact that they correctly convey the thought, feeling, truthfully reveal the spiritual world of the hero, realistically recreate the language and image. Not only the normative facts of the language, but also deviations from general literary norms are subject to the author's intention, the desire for artistic truth.

The breadth of coverage of the means of the national language by artistic speech is so great that it allows us to assert the idea of ​​the fundamental potential possibility of including all existing linguistic means (albeit, connected in a certain way) in the style of fiction.

These facts indicate that the style of fiction has a number of features that allow it to take its own special place in the system of functional styles of the Russian language.

2. Figurativeness as a unit of figurativeness and expressiveness

Figurativeness and expressiveness– inherent properties of the artistic and literary style, therefore, from this we can conclude that figurativeness– necessary element of this style. However, this concept is still much broader, most often in linguistic science the question of the figurativeness of a word as a unit of language and speech, or, in other words, lexical figurativeness, is considered..

In this regard, figurativeness is considered as one of the connotative characteristics of a word, as the ability of a word to contain and reproduce in itself speech communication concrete-sensual appearance (image) of an object, fixed in the minds of native speakers,– a kind of visual or auditory representation.

In the work of N.A. Lukyanova "On semantics and types of expressive lexical units"contains a number of judgments about lexical imagery, which we fully share. Here are some of them (in our formulation):

1. Imagery is a semantic component that actualizes sensory associations (representations) associated with a certain word, and through it with a specific object, a phenomenon called a given word.

2. Imagery can be motivated and unmotivated.

3. Linguistic (semantic) basis of motivated figurative expressive words- this is:

a) figurative associations that arise when comparing two ideas about real objects, phenomena,– metaphorical imagery (boil– “to be in a state of strong indignation, anger”; dry– "worry a lot, take care of someone, something");

b) sound associations– (burn, grunt);

c) the figurativeness of the internal form as a result of word-formation motivation (play, star, shrink).

4. The linguistic basis of unmotivated figurativeness is created due to a number of factors: obscuration of the inner form of the word, individual figurative representations, etc.

Thus, we can say that imagery– one of the most important structural and semantic properties of a word, which affects its semantics, valence, emotional and expressive status. The processes of formation of verbal imagery are most directly and organically associated with the processes of metaphorization, that is, they serve as figurative and expressive means.

Figurativeness is “figurativeness and expressiveness”, that is, the functions of a language unit in speech with the features of its structural organization and a certain environment, which reflects exactly the plan of expression.

The category of figurativeness, being a mandatory structural characteristic of each language unit, covers all levels of reflection of the surrounding world. It is precisely because of this constant ability to potentially generate figurative dominants that it became possible to talk about such qualities of speech as figurativeness and expressiveness.

They, in turn, are characterized precisely by the ability to create (or actualize linguistic figurative dominants) sensory images, their special representation and saturation with associations in the mind. The true function of figurativeness is revealed only when referring to a real objective action.– speech. Consequently, the reason for such qualities of speech as figurativeness and expressiveness lies in the language system and can be found at any of its levels, and this reason is figurativeness.– a special inseparable structural characteristic of a language unit, while the objectivity of the reflection of the representation and the activity of its construction can be studied only at the level of the functional implementation of the language unit. In particular, it can be vocabulary with a subject-specific meaning, as the main means of representation.

3. Vocabulary with objective meaning as the basis of figurativeness

The meaning of a linguistic sign can be either objective or logical. The sign of the language, which has a subjective meaning, denotes objects and phenomena, their actions, their signs (for example, light- physical phenomenon, shine, illuminate- actions of light, light, light- certain signs of some object or action). The sign of the language, which has a logical meaning, denotes logical relations (for light- target relationship, due to light- cause relationships, in the light- the relationship of place, not a shadow, but a light- opposing relationship).

The linguistic meanings of the subject series are called lexical linguistic meanings, the linguistic meanings of the logical (mental) series are called grammatical linguistic meanings.

Based on the information that objects in the language denote nouns, it would be legitimate to conclude that they form the basis of figurativeness and consider this statement in detail.

Note that, according to linguists, in artistic speech, nouns perform not only an informative, but also an aesthetic function.. Their use may be due to extralinguistic factors, since the theme of the work refers the author to the nouns of certain lexical and grammatical categories. Real, collective, abstract, concrete nouns, used in any of the functional styles, are also used in artistic speech. At the same time, stylistically neutral nouns are involved in the system of expressive means of the language and acquire the appropriate expressive coloring. For example, a proper name acquires a new symbolic meaning in the title of N.S. Leskov, who used the technique of antonomasia - "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk district", etc.

It is important to emphasize that the use of nouns in an aesthetic function may not be associated with their metaphorical rethinking. In autological speech (that is, in speech free from tropes), nouns can also play an important stylistic role, acting as a vivid source of expression.

Of particular stylistic interest is the use of abstract nouns by writers to enhance the effectiveness of speech.

The fundamental difference between the stylistic use of abstract nouns in artistic speech is the activation of their expressive possibilities. Under the pen of artists, abstract nouns can become a strong source of speech expression, although their aesthetic function is sometimes underestimated, which distorts the idea of ​​the stylistic resources of morphological means.

Russian writers have always attached great importance to the development of abstract vocabulary in artistic speech. Abstract nouns were involved in the system of expressive means by poets - to reflect the spiritual world of the lyrical hero, designate sublime moral and aesthetic categories. For example, A.S. Pushkin: “But I am not created for bliss...; And the heart beats in rapture, and for it the deity, and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love have risen again.

Poets of the second half of the 19th century. expanded the repertoire of abstract nouns, giving the style an excitedly pathetic sound. So, N.A. Nekrasov often uses the words: freedom, faith, shrine, sorrow, poverty, despair, struggle, violence. In order to enhance the expression of abstract nouns that acquire a political coloring in the context, the poet used a special graphic technique - he wrote them with a capital letter: “Through the dark abysses of Violence and Evil, Labor and Hunger, she led me ... [about the muse]”.

Contrasted with abstract nouns, concrete nouns also have great potential for creating speech expression in artistic speech.

Writers and publicists are characterized by predominantly visual thinking as opposed to abstract thinking, which is practically reflected in the widespread use of specific nouns. Their skillful introduction into the text creates visible pictures. Moreover, in artistic speech, the aesthetic function can be performed by nouns used in their direct meaning, without being subjected to figurative rethinking:

The special stylistic value of specific nouns is determined by their pictorial possibilities in describing artistic details. In this case, the words naming everyday realities, often very prosaic things, contain great figurative energy and represent unlimited pictorial possibilities for describing the life of the characters, the situation, pictures of nature, life.

Great scope for stylistic observations opens up the study of the expressive function of proper nouns. Their expressive coloring is due to the stylistic features of their use in different styles of speech and the rich tradition of aesthetic development in Russian literature.

The potential expressive possibilities of personal names are also due to the fact that many of them go back to Greek roots and carry a hidden symbolic meaning: Mitrofan is the glory of the mother, Elena is the chosen one, bright, etc. The writer, naming his hero, can briefly express his attitude towards him; cf.: A.N. Ostrovsky Katerina is eternally pure, Varvara is a savage, rude.

Rare, strange names give the speech a humorous coloring: Varukh, Solokha, Khivrya. A vivid expression is created by the clash of an uncommon name with a very common patronymic or surname: Feodulia Ivanovna (Gogol); Apollo Merzavetsky (Ostrovsky); Vasisualy Lokhankin (Ilf and Petrov). One of the methods of playing up proper names is the application of a famous name to an ordinary or comic character: the shoemaker Hoffmann, the tinsmith Schiller (Gogol).

However, along with a rich set of reduced characteristic surnames in Russian literature, there are also quite a few proper nouns that are free from such associative evaluative meanings. They are perceived not as neutral, but as good, open to creating an aura of positive emotional and expressive shades around them; compare: Onegin, Pechorin, Larina, Lensky, Insarov, Rostov.

Another group of stylistically active proper names are geographic names. In the Russian literary language, special expressive halos are often created around them, due to various associations. So, during the Great Patriotic War, acute political significance acquired many geographical names: Brest, Stalingrad, Volga, Ural, Yalta, etc. They received a bright journalistic sound thanks to the heroism of the soldiers who glorified the Russian land with their selfless struggle against fascism. A number of geographical names are associated in the mind of a Russian person with national pride, a patriotic theme: Moscow, Vladimir, Smolensk, Borodino, other names are associated with the traditions of Russian art: Kizhi, Palekh, Gzhel.

literary art style vocabulary

Conclusion

The artistic style differs from other functional styles in that it uses the language tools of all other styles, but these tools (which is very important) appear here in a modified function.– in aesthetic. In addition, not only strictly literary, but also non-literary means of language can be used in artistic speech.– colloquial, slang, dialect, etc., which are also used not in their primary function, but are subject to an aesthetic task.

It can be said that in the artistic style all linguistic means, including neutral ones, are used to express the poetic thought of the author, to create a system of images of a work of art.

In general, the artistic style is usually characterized by figurativeness, expressiveness, emotionality, the author's individuality, the specificity of the presentation, the specificity of the use of all linguistic means, for example, vocabulary with objective meaning, nouns, etc.

Literature

1. Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language. Moscow: Flinta-Nauka, 2003.
2. Blinova O.I. Imagery as a category of lexicology // Expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology. Novosibirsk, 1983.
3. Vinogradov V.V. Problems of Russian stylistics. M., 1981.
4. – what is this? // Philological notes. Perm, 2002.
5. Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language. M., 1983.
6. Losev A.F. Problems of artistic style. Kyiv, 1994.
7. Lukyanova N.A. On semantics and types of expressive lexical units. // Actual problems of lexicology and word formation. Novosibirsk, 1979. Issue. VIII.
8. Mezenin S.M. Imagery as a linguistic category // Questions of linguistics, 1983. - No. 6.
9. Tazmina I.B. Imagery as a communicative quality of speech // Bulletin.- Abakan: KSU, 1998.
10. Khazagerov T.G., Shirin L.S. General Rhetoric: A Course of Lectures and a Dictionary of Rhetorical Figures.– Rostov-on-Don: RU publishing house, 1994.

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1 Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language. M., 1983. P.49.

2 Gruzberg L.A. Lexical figurativeness– what is this? // Philological notes. Perm, 2002, p. 19.

3 Lukyanova N.A. On semantics and types of expressive lexical units. I. Semantka // Actual problems of lexicology and word formation. Novosibirsk, 1979. Issue. VIII. S. 91.

4 Blinova O.I. Imagery as a category of lexicology // Expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology. Novosibirsk, 1983. P.57.

The form of works of art has a certain style precisely because of its figurativeness and expressiveness. From the side of its form, a work of art is a system of images, consisting of many different subject and verbal semantic details, compositional and intonational-syntactic devices, and these figurative details and devices carry this or that ideological and emotional expressiveness. Aesthetic unity of all figuratively expressive details of the form of a work corresponding to its content, is the style. The perfection and completeness of style are distinguished to the greatest extent by works that have the depth and clarity of the problematic, and even more so the historical truthfulness of the ideological orientation. The shallowness of the problem easily leads to a heap of random, internally unjustified plot episodes, substantive details and statements of characters. All this deprives the form of the work of its aesthetic integrity.

Style is a stable integrity or commonality of the figurative system, means of artistic expression, figurative techniques. Simply put, style is what distinguishes this or that text and speech. In total, five styles of literary works are distinguished - colloquial, scientific, journalistic, official business, artistic. Every writer, every literary era has its own style. What is "stylization"? Stylization in literature is called imitation of a particular style.

In literary criticism, style is understood as the unity of all elements of an artistic form. That is, one can speak about the style of a work only when the artistic form of this work has reached a certain aesthetic perfection and has become capable of influencing the minds of readers.

idiostyle- this is an individual author's style of a writer or poet; specificity of the speech of works of art; the subject of stylistics. The first studies of idiostyle are associated with the names of Yu. N. Tynyanov, Yu. N. Karaulov and V. V. Vinogradov, who in the middle of the 20th century were engaged in the study of linguistic personality. In particular, V. V. Vinogradov introduced the term "linguistic personality", and Yu. N. Karaulov came up with the idea of ​​dividing it into levels: verbal-semantic, cognitive, motivational - and further complex analysis of the idiostyle based on the analysis of these individual levels. Today it is a rapidly developing area of ​​science, the research of which is of interest not only to specialist scientists, but also to ordinary readers. The concept of idiostyle is closely related to the concept of the concept, since, analyzing the style of the writer, the author pays attention to the key concepts that are found in his texts.

The term "idiostyle" is also correlated with the term "idiolect". In the theory of fiction, the difference between them in general terms is as follows. The idiolect of a certain author is understood as the entire set of texts created by him in the original chronological sequence (or the sequence sanctioned by the author himself, if the texts were reworked). Idiostyle is understood as a set of deep text-generating dominants and constants of a certain author, which determined the appearance of these texts in this sequence.

Among the variety of points of view on the correlation of such concepts as poetic language, poetic text, poetic idiostyle and idiolect, two main approaches can be distinguished. The first is that idiolect and idiostyle are considered to be related to each other as surface and deep structures in descriptions of the type "Meaning Text" or forming a triad "Theme Techniques of expressiveness Text" (A.K. Zholkovsky, Yu.K. Shcheglov). The set of interconnected linguistic factors that make up the idiolect, presented on the surface, is functionally rooted in the “language memory” and “genetics of linguistic thinking” of the author and, as a result, turns out to be reducible to a hierarchical system of invariants organizing the so-called “poetic world” of the author. According to V.P. Grigoriev, “the description of the idiostyle should be aimed at revealing the deep semantic and categorical connection of its elements, embodying the poet’s creative path in the language, to the essence of his explicit and implicit reflection on the language.” Grigoriev calls the characteristic of the linguistic personality of the poet that unites the whole description "the image of the author of the idiostyle" by natural analogy with the ideas of V.V. Vinogradov and M.M. Bakhtin. At the same time, the description highlights not only the “idiolect-idiostyle” direction, which has its own system of transition rules, but also the “text-idiolect” and “language-idiolect” directions.

There are works created with the installation of "another's word (style)" on the image. (stylization, parody, tale)

Each work of art has its own style, the style is associated with the era, national culture, with the direction to which this author belongs, with the individuality of the author of the work.

In art, the creative task of depicting someone else's style can be set, i.e. style of not his era, not his national culture, not your direction.

The conscious representation of the characteristic features of a style that is not one's own is stylization.

In a work of art, the subject of stylization is the literary styles of the era, elements of folk literature.

When stylized, the depicted style is always subordinated to the author's own style.

skaz is built with an installation on someone else's word. Always focused on colloquial, suggests the figure of the narrator. It is built in such a way that everything is presented as if through the prism of the narrator. Compositionally, the tale is subject to the laws of literary monologue speech. This is a combined stylistic form of fiction (combines the techniques of oral and colloquial language and book and written)

Unlike stylization, a tale depicts the word of a specific narrator (named or unnamed)

The forms of the tale can be varied. Sometimes the author reports that the tale is not spoken, but written, and then the narrator is, as it were, an unprofessional writer. The manner of the narrator is socially-individually determined

Parody - essential difference from stylization and skaz. In stylization and in the tale, the author uses someone else's word as material, they are suitable for the realization of the idea, the form and content are organically combined. The author of the parody speaks in someone else's word, but introduces into this someone else's word a semantic orientation that is directly opposite to this someone else's word. The author of the parody deliberately creates a clear, visible contradiction. Parody exists in tandem with the parodied. Without knowing the original text / style that is being parodied, it is impossible to understand the parody itself; the subject of parody can be individual works, the individual style of the writer, a literary genre, a literary direction.

In parody, the object of the image becomes someone else's word; in stylization and skaz, someone else's word becomes a means of image. Parody does not reflect, does not describe reality itself, but depicts the reflection (refracts) of this reality in someone else's text, in someone else's style. Therefore, the image is presented in comic. Features of someone else's style are comically sharpened. There is a splitting of the sign and meaning.

Artwork style

"... The language of a literary work must first of all be studied, starting from the concepts and categories of the general literary and linguistic system, from its elements and delving into the techniques and methods of their individual stylistic use ... But there is another way of linguistic study of the style of a literary work as a holistic verbal and artistic unity, as a special type of aesthetic, stylistic verbal structure. This path is from a complex unity to its dismemberment "(V.V. Vinogradov).

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. From allegory to iambic. - M.: Flinta, Nauka. N.Yu. Rusova. 2004

See what "work style" is in other dictionaries:

Style- 1. The concept of style. C. historically conditioned aesthetic unity of the content and the diverse aspects of the artistic form, revealing the content of the work. S. arises as a result of the "artistic development" of certain aspects of the social ... Literary Encyclopedia

Style- STYLE. The word style, originally among the Greeks and Romans, meant the very instrument of writing, that stick, or rod, with the sharp end of which they wrote on tablets rubbed with wax, and with the blunt end they erased, smoothed down what was written; hence the advice of Horace: ... ... Dictionary of literary terms

1) (from Latin stilus and Greek stylos writing stick, later handwriting) the unity of the figurative system, figuratively expressive means, creative techniques, penetrating the entire artistic structure. You can talk about style in art and style in ... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

style- [manner] n., m., use. often Morphology: (no) what? style for what? style, (see) what? style what? style about what? about style; pl. what? styles, (no) what? styles for what? styles, (see) what? styles than? styles about what? about styles 1. Style is called ... ... Dictionary of Dmitriev

STYLE- a method based on certain laws, a way of life and actions, especially when it comes to a method that plays a significant role in this respect, a method that creates, has creative value. In this sense, they talk about creative ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

STYLE- an established form of art. self-determination of an era, region, nation, social or creative. groups or departments personality. Closely related to aesthetics. self-expression and constituting the center, the subject of the history of literature and art, this concept, however, ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies

STYLE- (Latin stilus, from Greek stylos a writing stick). 1) in literature: a way of expression, a syllable, a peculiar way of presenting the thoughts of prominent writers. 2) a kind of lead, which the ancients used to write on waxed tablets, the lower end of which was sharp ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Lermontov's style- Lermontov's STYLE, perhaps the most difficult, but at the same time a promising problem of the modern. Lermontov studies. Attempts to define the style of L. either as romantic, or as realistic with elements of romance (see Romanticism and Realism), then as ... ... Lermontov Encyclopedia

STYLE IN LITERATURE- (from Latin stilus a pointed stick for writing, a manner of writing), a stable commonality of the figurative system (see Artistic image), means of artistic expression, characterizing the originality of the writer's work, separate ... ... Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary

Style (in literature and art)- Style in literature and art, stable integrity or commonality of the figurative system, means of artistic expression, figurative techniques that characterize a work of art or a set of works. S. is also called the system ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

• Painting, style, fashion, . Works of fine art - paintings, drawings, watercolors, sculptures - always express the style of the era. Especially if they contain scenes from life. Clothes, demeanor...

Literary and artistic style- functional style of speech, which is used in fiction. This style affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the richness of vocabulary, possibilities different styles, characterized by figurativeness, emotionality of speech.

In a work of art, the word not only carries certain information, but also serves to aesthetically influence the reader with the help of artistic images. The brighter and more truthful the image, the stronger it affects the reader.

In their works, writers use, when necessary, not only words and forms of the literary language, but also obsolete dialect and vernacular words.

The emotionality of the artistic style differs significantly from the emotionality of the colloquial and everyday journalistic styles. It performs an aesthetic function. Artistic style involves a preliminary selection of language means; all language means are used to create images. Distinctive feature Artistic style of speech can be called the use of special figures of speech, giving the narrative colorfulness, the power of depicting reality.

The means of artistic expression are varied and numerous. These are tropes: comparisons, personifications, allegory, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc. And stylistic figures: epithet, hyperbole, litote, anaphora, epiphora, gradation, parallelism, rhetorical question, silence, etc.

Trope(from other Greek τρόπος - turnover) - in a work of art, words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech.

The main types of trails:

• Metaphor(from other Greek μεταφορά - “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) - a trope, a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with some other on the basis of their common feature. (“Nature here is destined for us to cut a window into Europe”). Any part of speech in a figurative sense.

• Metonymy(ancient Greek μετονυμία - “renaming”, from μετά - “above” and ὄνομα / ὄνυμα - “name”) - a kind of trail, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) located in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the subject, which is denoted by the replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class or vice versa, receptacle instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and the metaphor is "by likeness". Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy. (“All flags will visit us”, where flags replace countries.)

• Epithet(from other Greek ἐπίθετον - “attached”) - a definition of a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love passionately”), a noun (“fun noise”), a numeral (“second life”).

An epithet is a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness. It is used both in poetry (more often) and in prose (“timid breath”; “magnificent sign”).

• Synecdoche(ancient Greek συνεκδοχή) - a trope, a kind of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. (“Everything is sleeping - both man, and beast, and bird”; “We all look at Napoleons”; “In the roof for my family”; “Well, sit down, luminary”; “Most of all, take care of a penny.”)

• Hyperbola(from other Greek ὑπερβολή "transition; excess, excess; exaggeration") - stylistic figure explicit and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said. (“I’ve said it a thousand times”; “We have enough food for six months.”)
• Litotes- a figurative expression that downplays the size, strength, meaning of what is being described. A litote is called an inverse hyperbole. ("Your Pomeranian, lovely Pomeranian, no more than a thimble").
• Comparison- a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of comparison is to reveal in the object of comparison new properties that are important for the subject of the statement. (“A man is stupid as a pig, but cunning as hell”; “My house is my fortress”; “He walks like a gogol”; “An attempt is not torture.”)

• In stylistics and poetics, paraphrase (paraphrase, paraphrase; from other Greek. περίφρασις - “descriptive expression”, “allegory”: περί - “around”, “about” and φράσις - “statement”) is a trope that descriptively expresses one concept with the help of several.

Paraphrase is an indirect reference to an object by not naming it, but by describing it. (“Night luminary” = “moon”; “I love you, creation of Peter!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).

• allegory (allegory)- conditional representation of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.

For example:

The nightingale is sad at the defeated rose, hysterically sings over the flower. But the garden scarecrow also sheds tears, secretly loving the rose.

• personification(personification, prosopopoeia) - tropes, the assignment of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features.

For example:

And woe, woe, grief! And grief girded itself with a bast,

Feet are entangled with bast.

folk song

The state is like an evil stepfather, from whom, alas, you can’t run away, because it’s impossible to take with you

Motherland - a suffering mother.

Aidyn Khanmagomedov, Visa Response

• Irony(from other Greek εἰρωνεία - “pretense”) - a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the obvious meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems. (“Where can we, fools, drink tea.”)
• Sarcasm(Greek σαρκασμός, from σαρκάζω, literally “tear [meat]”) - one of the types of satirical exposure, caustic mockery, highest degree irony, based not only on the heightened contrast between the implied and the expressed, but also on the immediate intentional exposure of the implied.

Sarcasm is a mockery that can open with a positive judgment, but in general it always contains a negative connotation and indicates a lack of a person, object or phenomenon, that is, in relation to what it is happening. Example:

The capitalists are ready to sell us a rope with which we will hang them. If the patient really wants to live, doctors are powerless. Only the Universe and human stupidity are infinite, while I have doubts about the first of them.

Genres of artistic speech: epic (ancient literature); narrative (novels, stories, short stories); lyrical (verses, poems); dramatic (comedy, tragedy).

Literary work: Theory of artistic integrity Mikhail Girshman

Style of literary work